Physically Attractive Women's Experiences of Gender Discrimination in Their Professional Careers

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.63556/tisej.2025.1563

Keywords:

Women seafarers, Femininity, Physical attractiveness, Lack of fit, Beauty is beastly

Abstract

Because of the “beauty is good” stereotype, people who are physically attractive are linked to favorable traits in social interactions, performance reviews, and job decisions. Contrary to the stereotype that “beauty is good”, women who work in male-dominated sectors and are perceived as physically attractive may occasionally experience the impact of “beauty is beastly”. This study explores how physically attractive female captains who work in the male-dominated maritime business describe their experiences with prejudice. Qualitative interviews with female captains on several ships serve as the study's foundation. The study's conclusions demonstrate how gender stereotypes based on female captains' physical attributes restrict women from being deemed qualified for positions requiring technical proficiency. Furthermore, this study provides important insights into how women respond to perceptions that their work is incompatible with their gender and the strategies they adopt to overcome these perceptions.

References

Aharoni Lir, S., & Ayalon, L. (2024). Beauty work or beauty care? Women’s perceptions of appearance in the second half of life. Journal of Women & Aging, 36(3), 256-271. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952841.2024.2321668

Anderson, R. (1978). Physical attractiveness and locus of control. The Journal of Social Psychology, 105(2), 213-216. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1978.9924117

Aumeboonsuke, V. (2018). The interrelations among self-efficacy, happiness, individual values, and attractiveness promoting behavior. Asian Social Science, 14(3), 37-48. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v14n3p37

Baudouin, J. Y., & Tiberghien, G. (2004). Symmetry, averageness, and feature size in the facial attractiveness of women. Acta Psychologica, 117(3), 313-332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2004.07.002

Bell, E., Bryman, A., & Harley, B. (2022). Business research methods. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/hebz/9780198869443.001.0001

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Braun, S., Peus, C., & Frey, D. (2015). Is beauty beastly? Gender-specific effects of leader attractiveness and leadership style on followers' trust and loyalty. Zeitschrift für Psychologie / Journal of Psychology, 220(2), 98-108. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000101

Buggio, L., Vercellini, P., Somigliana, E., Viganò, P., Frattaruolo, M. P., & Fedele, L. (2012). “You are so beautiful”: Behind women's attractiveness towards the biology of reproduction: A narrative review. Gynecological Endocrinology, 28, 753-757. https://doi.org/10.3109/09513590.2012.662545

Cellerino, A. (2003). Psychobiology of facial attractiveness. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation, 26(3), 45-48. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03345284

Cordon, J. R., Sánchez, N. E., & Navas, J. M. M. (2020). Female officers on board: Prejudices, stereotypes and the leadership role. Annals of Cognitive Science, 4(1), 174-184. https://doi.org/10.36959/447/350

Currie, T. E., & Little, A. C. (2009). The relative importance of the face and body in judgments of human physical attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior, 30(6), 409-416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.06.005

Daffin & Lane (2021). Principles of Social Psychology. USA: Washington State Unıversity. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.12345.67890

Demuthova, S., & Demuth, A. (2023). Is beauty good? A comparison of the semantic differentials of the terms beauty and goodness and their gender specificities. Journal of Advanced Research in Social Sciences, 6(3), 66-75. https://doi.org/10.33422/jarss.v6i3.1056

Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24(3), 285-290. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033731

Dural, S., Cetinkaya, H., & Gülbetekin, E. (2015). Hemispheric specialization in the assessment of female physical attractiveness. Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition, 20(2), 232-248. https://doi.org/10.1080/1357650X.2014.955503

Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573-598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.109.3.573

Furnham, A.‚ Dias, M.‚ & McClelland, A. (1998). The role of body weight‚ waist-to-hip ratio‚ and breast size in judgments of female attractiveness. Sex Roles, 39, 311-326. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018810723493

Gangestad, S. W., & Scheyd, G. J. (2005). The evolution of human physical attractiveness. Annual Review of Anthropology, 34(1), 523-548. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143733

Gao, Y., Niddam, J., Noel, W., Hersant, B., & Meningaud, J. P. (2018). Comparison of aesthetic facial criteria between Caucasian and East Asian female populations: an esthetic surgeon's perspective. Asian Journal of Surgery, 41(1), 4-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asjsur.2016.07.007

Gong, Y. (2024). The current situation of and solutions to appearance discrimination: An example from the financial industry. Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 27, 147-152. https://doi.org/10.54097/2c2c0580

Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods, 18(1), 59-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X05279903

Hale, G., Regev, T., & Rubinstein, Y. (2023). Do looks matter for an academic career in economics?. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 215, 406-420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2023.09.022

Heilman, M. E., & Saruwatari, L. R. (1979). When beauty is beastly: The effects of appearance and sex on evaluations of job applicants for managerial and nonmanagerial jobs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 23(3), 360-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(79)90003-5

Heilman, M. E. (1983). Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior (Vol. 5, pp. 269-298). JAI Press.

Heilman, M. E., & Stopeck, M. H. (1985). Being attractive, advantage or disadvantage? Performance-based evaluations and recommended personnel actions as a function of appearance, sex, and job type. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 35(2), 202-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(85)90035-4

Heilman, M. E., Block, C. J., Martell, R. F., & Simon, M. C. (1989). Has anything changed? Current characterizations of men, women, and managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(6), 935-942. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.74.6.935

Heilman, M. E., & Okimoto, T. G. (2008). Motherhood: a potential source of bias in employment decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 189-198. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.189

Heilman, M. E., Manzi, F., & Braun, S. (2015). Presumed incompetent: Perceived lack of fit and gender bias in recruitment and selection. In A. M. Broadbridge & S. L. Fielden (Eds.), Handbook of gendered careers in management: Getting in, getting on, getting out (pp. 90-104). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781782547709.00014

Heilman, M. E., & Caleo, S. (2018). Combatting gender discrimination: A lack of fit framework. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 21(5), 725-744. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430218761587

Hoskin, A. W., & Moody, D. (2023). Association between dimensions of physical attractiveness and risk of rape victimization among adolescent females. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 32(6), 890-901. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2022.2142180

Hosoda, M., Stone-Romero, E. F., & Coats, G. (2003). The effects of physical attractiveness on jobrelated outcomes: A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Personnel Psychology, 56(2), 431-462. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2003.tb00157.x

Hönn, M., & Göz, G. (2007). The ideal of facial beauty: a review. Journal of Orofacial Orthopedics, 68(1), 6-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00056-007-0604-6

Hu, W., & Sun, Y. (2024). Does beauty matter to employment in the digital age? Evidence from the Chinese labor market. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13547860.2024.2410050

Johnson, S. K., Podratz, K. E., Dipboye, R. L., & Gibbons, E. (2010). Physical attractiveness biases in ratings of employment suitability: Tracking down the “beauty is beastly” effect. The Journal of Social Psychology, 150(3), 301-318. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540903365414

Johnson, S. K., Sitzmann, T., & Nguyen, A. T. (2014). Don’t hate me because I’m beautiful: Acknowledging appearance mitigates the “beauty is beastly” effect. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 125(2), 184-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.09.006

Johnson, S. K., Keplinger, K., Kirk, J. F., & Chan, E. T. (2018). The perils of pretty: Effects of personal appearance on women’s careers. In A. M. Broadbridge & S. L. Fielden (Eds.), Research handbook of diversity and careers (pp. 129-144). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781785365607.00016

Johnson, S. K., & Chan, E. (2019). Can looks deceive you? Attractive decoys mitigate beauty is beastly bias against women. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 7(1), 60-70. https://doi.org/10.1037/arc0000066

Keyser-Verreault, A. (2021). Eating as a way of performing gender: The intersection of food, gender, and human capital. In J. Jooyeon Rhee, C. Chikako Nagayama, & E. P. H. Li (Eds.), Gender and food in transnational east Asia (pp. 183-202). Lexington Books. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781666989854.ch9

Keyser-Verreault, A. (2023). ‘Your fatty bum is really ugly!’Gender, fat-shaming, and beauty-related tensions in contemporary Taiwanese families. Journal of Family Studies, 29(5), 2068-2089. https://doi.org/10.1080/13229400.2022.2132984

Kitada, M. (2013). Code of behaviour at sea: women seafarers’ shipboard identity management. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 12, 213-227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-013-0044-7

Kitada, M. (2017). Female captains and their leadership: Human factors in the shipping industry. In J. I. Kantola, T. Barath, & S. Nazir (Eds.), Advances in Human Factors, Business Management and Leadership (pp. 1265-1273). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60372-8_114

Kowal, M., Sorokowski, P., Pisanski, K., Valentova, J. V., Varella, M. A., Frederick, D. A., ... & Mišetić, K. (2022). Predictors of enhancing human physical attractiveness: Data from 93 countries. Evolution and Human Behavior, 43(6), 455-474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2022.08.003

Kukkonen, I., Pajunen, T., Sarpila, O., & Åberg, E. (2024). Is beauty-based inequality gendered? A systematic review of gender differences in socioeconomic outcomes of physical attractiveness in labor markets. European Societies, 26(1), 117-148. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2023.2210202

Kunst, J. R., Kirkøen, J., & Mohamdain, O. (2022). Hacking attractiveness biases in hiring? The role of beautifying photo-filters. Management Decision, 61(4), 924-943. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-06-2021-0747

Lee, M., & Lee, H. H. (2019). Effects of family, friends, and social media pressures on acceptance of cosmetic surgical procedures via internalization and appearance satisfaction. Journal of the Korean Society of Clothing and Textiles, 43(5), 620-633. https://doi.org/10.5850/JKSCT.2019.43.5.620

Lim, W. M. (2024). What is qualitative research? An overview and guidelines. Australasian Marketing Journal, 33(2), 199-229. https://doi.org/10.1177/14413582241264619

Lindsay, S. L., Haynie, D. L., & Edison, S. (2024). An Attractive Target: Do Perceptions of Physical Attractiveness Shape Victimization Risks in Women’s Prisons?. Victims & Offenders, 20(2), 276-298. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2024.2356828

Little, A. C., Jones, B. C., & DeBruine, L. M. (2011). Facial attractiveness: evolutionary based research. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366(1571), 1638-1659. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0404

Luo, S., & Zhang, G. (2009). What leads to romantic attraction: Similarity, reciprocity, security, or beauty? Evidence from a speed‐dating study. Journal of Personality, 77(4), 933-964. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00570.x

Lynn, M. (2009). Determinants and consequences of female attractiveness and sexiness: Realistic tests with restaurant waitresses. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 737-745. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9379-0

Maheshwari, B. (2024). Discrimination based on physical attractiveness: causes and consequences a critical perspective. Psychological Reports, 127(6), 2855-2872. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941221149174

Marlowe, C. M., Schneider, S. L., & Nelson, C. E. (1996). Gender and attractiveness biases in hiring decisions: Are more experienced managers less biased?. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(1), 11-21. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.81.1.11

Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. John Wiley & Sons.

Mobius, M. M., & Rosenblat, T. S. (2006). Why beauty matters. American Economic Review, 96(1), 222-235. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282806776157515

Mowen, T. J., & Heitkamp, A. (2023). The label of looks: Physical attractiveness, stigma, and deviant behavior. Sociological Focus, 56(4), 407-423. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.2023.2239733

Nault, K. A., Pitesa, M., & Thau, S. (2020). The attractiveness advantage at work: A cross-disciplinary integrative review. Academy of Management Annals, 14(2), 1103-1139. https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2018.0134

Niu, Y. (2024). The impact of lookism on employment decisions: evidence from China. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 43(2), 188-210. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-12-2022-0359

Pallett, P. M., Link, S., & Lee, K. (2010). New “golden” ratios for facial beauty. Vision Research, 50(2), 149-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2009.11.003

Patton, M. Q. (2014). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice. Sage Publications.

Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., & Walker, L. S. (2016). Revisiting the beauty is beastly effect: Examining when and why sex and attractiveness impact hiring judgments. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(10), 1034-1058. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1053963

Rhodes, G., Sumich, A., & Byatt, G. (1999). Are average facial configurations attractive only because of their symmetry?. Psychological Science, 10(1), 52-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00106

Sanders, C. A., Jenkins, A. T., & King, L. A. (2023). Pretty, meaningful lives: physical attractiveness and experienced and perceived meaning in life. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 18(6), 978-994. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2022.2155222

Senbursa, N. (2025). Women seafarers' well-being on board: Invisibility hurts! In M. I. Nadeem (Ed.), Women in logistics and transport (pp. 3-18). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781032709550-2

Singh, D. (2004). Mating strategies of young women: Role of physical attractiveness. Journal of Sex Research, 41(1), 43-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490409552212

Smith, S. M., McIntosh, W. D., & Bazzini, D. G. (1999). Are the Beautiful Good in Hollywood? An Investigation of the Beauty-and-Goodness Stereotype on Film. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21(1), 69-80. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp2101_7

Sorokowski, P., Szmajke, A., Sorokowska, A., Borg Cunen, M., Fabrykant, M., Zarafshani, K., … Fang, T. (2011). Attractiveness of leg length: Report from 27 nations. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42(1), 131-139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022110392229

Tekindal, M. & Uğuz Arsu, Ş. (2020). Nitel araştırma yöntemi olarak fenomenolojik yaklaşımın kapsamı ve sürecine yönelik bir derleme. Ufkun Ötesi Bilim Dergisi, 20(1), 153-182.

Timming, A. R., Baumann, C., & Gollan, P. (2021). Employee voice and perceived attractiveness: are less attractive employees ignored in the workplace?. Journal of Participation and Employee Ownership, 4(1), 26-41. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPEO-02-2020-0005

Tovee, M. J., Maisey, D. S., Emery, J. L., & Cornelissen, P. L. (1999). Visual cues to female physical attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 266, 211-218. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1999.0624

Treviños-Rodríguez, D., & Díaz-Soloaga, P. (2023). Ideal feminine beauty according to Korean cosmetic brand’s Instagram profiles. Media Asia, 50(3), 440-457. https://doi.org/10.1080/01296612.2022.2159154

Tuckett, A. G. (2005). Applying thematic analysis theory to practice: A researcher’s experience. Contemporary Nurse, 19(1-2), 75-87. https://doi.org/10.5172/conu.19.1-2.75

Usmani, S. (2020). Recruitment and selection process at workplace: A qualitative, quantitative and experimental perspective of physical attractiveness and social desirability. Review of Integrative Business and Economics Research, 9(2), 107-122. https://doi.org/10.54097/2c2c0580

Weeden, J., & Sabini, J. (2005). Physical attractiveness and health in Western societies: a review. Psychological Bulletin, 131(5), 635-653. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.5.635

Wu, W. J., Diao, X., & Yang, G. L. (2020). “What is Beautiful is Good” or “Too Much of a Good Thing”? How facial attractiveness influences job-related well-being in the workplace. Journal of Psychological Science, 43(5), 1132-1139. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1042.2019.01743

Downloads

Published

20.12.2025

How to Cite

GÖK, B. (2025). Physically Attractive Women’s Experiences of Gender Discrimination in Their Professional Careers. Third Sector Social Economic Review, 60(4), 3390–3412. https://doi.org/10.63556/tisej.2025.1563

Issue

Section

Research Article

Similar Articles

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 > >> 

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.